William James

The Will to Believe

(1896)

n the recently published Life by Leslie Stephen of his brother, Fitz-James,

there is an account of a school to which the latter went when he was a boy.

The teacher, a certain Mr. Guest, used to converse with his pupils in this

wise: “Gurney, what is the difference between justification and

sanctification?—Stephen, prove the omnipotence of God,” etc. In the midst

of our Harvard freethinking and indifference we are prone to imagine that

here at your good old orthodox College conversation continues to be

somewhat upon this order; and to show you that we at Harvard have not

lost all interest in these vital subjects, I have, brought with me tonight

something like a sermon on justification by faith to read to you—I mean an

essay in justification of faith, a defense of our right to adopt a believing

attitude in religious matters, in spite of the fact that our merely logical

intellect may not have been coerced. “The Will to Believe,” accordingly, is

the title of my paper.

I have long defended to my own students the lawfulness of

voluntarily adopted faith; but as soon as they have got well imbued with

the logical spirit, they have as a rule refused to admit my contention to be

lawful philosophically, even though in point of fact they were personally all

the time chock full of some faith or other themselves. I am all the while,

however, so profoundly convinced that my own position is correct, that

your invitation has seemed to me a good occasion to make my statements

more clear. Perhaps your minds will be more open than those with which I

have hitherto had to deal. I will be as little technical as I can, though I

must begin by setting up some technical distinctions that will help us in

the end.

Let us give the name of hypothesis to anything that may be proposed to our

belief; and just as the electricians speak of live and dead wires, let us speak

of any hypothesis as either live or dead. A live hypothesis is one which

appeals as a real possibility to him to whom it is proposed. If I ask you to

believe in the Mahdi, the notion makes no electric connection with your

nature—it refuses to scintillate with any credibility at all. As an hypothesis

it is completely dead. To an Arab, however (even if he be not one of the

Mahdi's followers), the hypothesis is among the mind's possibilities: it is

alive. This shows that deadness and liveness in an hypothesis are not

intrinsic properties, but relations to the individual thinker. They are

measured by his willingness to act. The maximum of liveness in an

hypothesis means willingness to act irrevocably. Practically, that means

belief; but there is some believing tendency wherever there is willingness to

act at all.

Next, let us call the decision between two hypotheses an

option

Options may be of several kinds. They may be—1,

living

dead

; 2,

forced

avoidable

; 3,

momentous

trivial

; and for our purposes we may call an

option a

genuine

option when it is of the forced, living, and momentous

kind.

1. A living option is one in which both hypotheses are live ones. If I

say to you: “Be a theosophist or be a Mohammedan,” it is probably a dead

option, because for you neither hypothesis is likely to be alive. But if I say:

“Be an agnostic or be a Christian,” it is otherwise: trained as you are, each

hypothesis makes some appeal, however small, to your belief.

2. Next, if I say to you: “Choose between going out with your

umbrella or without it,” I do not offer you a genuine option, for it is not

forced. You can easily avoid it by not going out at all. Similarly, if I say,

“Either love me or hate me,” “Either call my theory true or call it false,”

your option is avoidable. You may remain indifferent to me, neither loving

nor hating and you may decline to offer any judgment as to my theory. But

if I say, “Either accept this truth or go without it,” I put on you a forced

option, for there is no standing place outside of the alternative. Every

dilemma based on a complete logical disjunction, with no possibility of not

choosing, is an option of this forced kind.

3. Finally, if I were Dr. Nansen and proposed to you to join my North

Pole expedition, your option would be momentous; for this would probably

be your only similar opportunity, and your choice now would either exclude

you from the North Pole sort of immortality altogether or put at least the

chance of it into your hands. He who refuses to embrace a unique

opportunity loses the prize as surely as if he tried and failed

. Per contra

, the

option is trivial when the opportunity is not unique, when the stake is

insignificant, or when the decision is reversible if it later prove unwise.

Such trivial options abound in the scientific life. A chemist finds an

hypothesis live enough to spend a year in its verification: he believes in it

to that extent. But if his experiments prove inconclusive either way, he is

quit for his loss of time, no vital harm being done.

It will facilitate our discussion if we keep all these distinctions well

in mind.

The next matter to consider is the actual psychology of human opinion.

When we look at certain facts, it seems as if our passional and volitional

nature lay at the root of all our convictions. When we look at others, it

seems as if they could do nothing when the intellect had once said its say.

Let us take the latter facts up first.

Does it not seem preposterous on the very face of it to talk of our

opinions being modifiable at will? Can our will either help or hinder our

intellect in its perceptions of truth? Can we, by just willing it, believe that

Abraham Lincoln’s existence is a myth, and that the portraits of him in

McClure's Magazine

are all of some one else? Can we, by any effort of our

will, or by any strength of wish that it were true, believe ourselves well and

about when we are roaring with rheumatism in bed, or feel certain that the

sum of the two one-dollar bills in our pocket must be a hundred dollars?

We can

say

any of these things, but we are absolutely impotent to believe

them; and of just such things is the whole fabric of the truths that we do

believe in made up—matters of fact, immediate or remote, as Hume said,

and relations between ideas, which are either there or not there for us if we

see them so, and which if not there cannot be put there by any action of

our own.

In Pascal's

Thoughts

there is a celebrated passage known in literature as

Pascal's wager. In it he tries to force us into Christianity by reasoning as if

our concern with truth resembled our concern with the stakes in a game of

chance. Translated freely his words are these: You must either believe or

not believe that God is—which will you do? Your human reason cannot say.

A game is going on between you and the nature of things which at the day

of judgment will bring out either heads or tails. Weigh what your gains and

your losses would be if you but should stake all you have on heads, or

God's existence: if you win in such case, you gain eternal beatitude; if you

lose, you lose nothing at all. If there were an infinity of chances, and only

one for God in this wager, still you ought to stake your all on God; for

though you surely risk a finite loss by this procedure, any finite loss is

reasonable, even a certain one is reasonable, if there is but—the possibility

of infinite gain. Go, then, and take holy water, and have masses said; belief

will come and stupefy your scruples—

Cela vous fera croire et vous abetira

Why should you not? At bottom, what have you to lose?

You probably feel that when religious faith expresses itself thus, in

the language of the gaming table, it is put to its last trumps. Surely

Pascal's own personal belief in masses and holy water had far other

springs; and this celebrated page of his is but an argument for others, a

last desperate snatch at a weapon against the hardness of the unbelieving

heart. We feel that a faith in masses and holy water adopted wilfully after

such a mechanical calculation would lack the inner soul of faith's reality;

and if we were ourselves in the place of the Deity, we should probably take

particular pleasure in cutting off believers of this pattern from their infinite

reward. It is evident that unless there be some preexisting tendency to

believe in masses and holy water, the option offered to the will by Pascal is

not a living option. Certainly no Turk ever took to masses and holy water

on its account; and even to us Protestants these means of salvation seem

such foregone impossibilities that Pascal's logic, invoked for them

specifically, leaves us unmoved. As well might the Mahdi write to us,

saying, “I am the Expected One whom God has created in his effulgence.

You shall be infinitely happy if you confess me; otherwise you shall be cut

off from the light of the sun. Weigh, then, your infinite gain if I am genuine

against your finite sacrifice if I am not.” His logic would be that of Pascal;

but he would vainly use it on us, for the hypothesis he offers us is dead. No

tendency to act on it exists in us to any degree.

The talk of believing by our volition seems, then, from one point of

view, simply silly. From another point of view it is worse than silly, it is vile.

When one turns to the magnificent edifice of the physical sciences, and

sees how it was reared; what thousands of disinterested moral lives of men

lie buried in its mere foundations; what patience and postponement, what

choking down of preference, what submission to the icy laws of outer fact

are wrought into its very stones and mortar; how absolutely impersonal it

stands in its vast augustness—then how besotted and contemptible seems

every little sentimentalist who comes blowing his voluntary smoke wreaths,

and pretending to decide things from out of his private dream. Can we

wonder if those bred in the rugged and manly school of science should feel

like spewing such subjectivism out of their mouths? The whole system of

loyalties which grow up in the schools of science go dead against its

toleration; so that it is only natural that those who have caught the

scientific fever should pass over to the opposite extreme, and write

sometimes as if the incorruptibly truthful intellect ought positively to prefer

bitterness and unacceptableness to the heart of its cup.

It fortifies my soul to know

That, though I perish, Truth is so–

sings Clough, while Huxley exclaims: “My only consolation lies in the

reflection that, however bad our posterity may become, so far as they hold

by the plain rule of not pretending to believe what they have no reason to

believe, because it may be to their advantage so to pretend [the word

“pretend” is surely here redundant], they will not have reached the lowest

depth of immorality.” And that delicious

enfant terrible

Clifford writes:

“Belief is desecrated when given to unproved and unquestioned statements

of the solace and private pleasure of the believer. ... Whoso would deserve

well of his fellows in this matter will guard the purity of his belief with a

very fanaticism of jealous care, lest at any time it should rest on an

unworthy object, and catch a stain which can never be wiped away. . . . If

[a] belief has been accepted on insufficient evidence [even though the belief

be true, as Clifford on the same page explains] the pleasure is a stolen one.

... It is sinful because it is stolen in defiance of our duty to mankind. That

duty is to guard ourselves from such beliefs as from a pestilence which may

shortly master our own body and then spread to the rest of the town. ... It

is wrong always, everywhere, and for every one, to believe anything upon

insufficient evidence.”

iii

All this strikes one as healthy, even when expressed, as by Clifford, with

somewhat too much of robustious pathos in the voice. Free will and simple

wishing do seem, in the matter of our credences, to be only fifth wheels to

the coach. Yet if any one should thereupon assume that intellectual insight

is what remains after wish and will and sentimental preference have taken

wing, or that pure reason is what then settles our opinions, he would fly

quite as directly in the teeth of the facts.

It is only our already dead hypotheses that our willing nature is unable to

bring to life again. But what has made them dead for us is for the most part

a previous action of our willing nature of an antagonistic kind. When I say

“willing nature,” I do not mean only such deliberate volitions as may have

set up habits of belief that we cannot now escape from—I mean all such

factors of belief as fear and hope, prejudice and passion, imitation and

partisanship, the circumpressure of our caste and set. As a matter of fact

we find ourselves believing, we hardly know how or why. Mr. Balfour gives

the name of “authority” to all those influences, born of the intellectual

climate, that make hypotheses possible or impossible for us, alive or dead.

Here in this room, we all of us believe in molecules and the conservation of

energy, in democracy and necessary progress, in Protestant Christianity

and the duty of fighting for “the doctrine of the immortal Monroe,” and for

no reasons worthy of the name. We see into these matters with no more

inner clearness, and probably with much less, than any disbeliever in them

might possess. His unconventionality would probably have some grounds

to show for its conclusions; but for us, not insight, but the

prestige

of the

opinions, is what makes the spark shoot from them and light up our

sleeping magazines of faith. Our reason is quite satisfied, in nine hundred

and ninety-nine cases out of every thousand of us, if it can find a few

arguments that will do to recite in case our credulity is criticized by some

one else. Our faith is faith in some one else's faith, and in the greatest

matters this is most the case. Our belief in truth itself, for instance, that—

there is a truth, and that our minds and it are made for each other—what

is it but a passionate affirmation of desire, in which our social system

backs us up? We want to have a truth; we want to believe that our

experiments and studies and discussions must put us in a continually

better and better position towards it; and on this line we agree to fight out

our thinking lives. But if a pyrrhonistic sceptic asks us

how we know

all

this, can our logic find a reply? Not certainly it cannot. It is just one volition

against another—we willing to go in for life upon a trust or assumption

which he, for his part, does not care to make.

As a rule we disbelieve all facts and theories for which we have no

use. Clifford's cosmic emotions find no use for Christian feelings. Huxley

belabors the bishops because there is no use for sacerdotalism in his

scheme of life. Newman, on the contrary, goes over to Romanism, and finds

all sorts of reasons good for staying there, because a priestly system is for

him an organic need and delight. Why do so few “scientists” even look at

the evidence for telepathy, so called? Because they think, as a leading

biologist, now dead, once said to me, that even if such a thing were true,

scientists ought to band together to keep it suppressed and concealed. It

would undo the uniformity of Nature and all sorts of other things without

which scientists cannot carry on their pursuits. But if this very man had

been shown something which as a scientist he might

with telepathy, he

might not only have examined the evidence, but even have found it good

enough. This very law which the logicians would impose upon us—if I may

give the name of logicians to those who would rule out our willing nature

here—is based on nothing but their own natural wish to exclude all

elements for which they, in their professional quality of logicians, can find

no use.

Evidently, then, our nonintellectual nature does influence our

convictions. There are passional tendencies and volitions which run before

and others which come after belief, and it is only the latter that are too late

for the fair; and they are not too late when the previous passional work has

been already in their own direction. Pascal’s argument, instead of being

powerless, then seems a regular clincher, and is the last stroke needed to

make our faith in masses and holy water complete. The state of things is

evidently far from simple; and pure insight and logic, whatever they might

do ideally, are not the only things that really do produce our creeds.

Our next duty, having recognized this mixed-up state of affairs, is to ask

whether it be simply reprehensible and pathological, or whether, on the

contrary, we must treat it as a normal element in making up our minds.

The thesis I defend is, briefly stated, this:

Our passional nature not only

lawfully may, but must, decide an option between propositions, whenever it is

a genuine option that cannot by its nature be decided on intellectual grounds;

for to say, under such circumstances, “Do not decide, but leave the question

open,” is itself a passional decision—just like deciding yes or no is attended,

with the same risk of losing the truth.

The thesis thus abstractly expressed

will, I trust, soon become quite clear. But must first indulge in a bit more

of- preliminary work.

It will be observed that for the purposes of this discussion we are on

"dogmatic" ground—ground, I mean, which leaves systematic philosophical

scepticism altogether out of account. The postulate that there is truth, and

that it is the destiny of our minds to attain it, we are deliberately resolving

Compare the admirable page 310 in S. H. Hodgson's

Time and Space

, (London, 1865).

to make, though the sceptic will not make it. We part company with him,

therefore, absolutely, at this point. But the faith that truth exists, and that

our minds can find it, may be held in two ways. We may talk of the

empiricist way and of the absolutist way of believing in truth. The

absolutists in this matter say that we not only can attain to knowing truth,

but we can know when we have attained to knowing it; while the

empiricists think that although we may attain it, we cannot infallibly know

when. To know is one thing, and to know for certain that we know is

another. One may hold to the first being possible without the second;

hence the empiricists; and the absolutists, although neither of them is a

sceptic, in the usual philosophic sense of the term, show very different

degrees of dogmatism in their lives.

If we look at the history of opinions, we see that the empiricist

tendency has largely prevailed in science, while in philosophy the

absolutist tendency has had everything its own way. The characteristic sort

of happiness, indeed, which philosophies yield has mainly consisted in the

conviction felt by each successive school or system that by it bottom

certitude had been attained. "Other philosophies are collections of

opinions, mostly false; my philosophy gives standing ground forever”—who

does not recognize in this the keynote of every system worthy of the name?

A system, to be a system at all, must come as a closed system, reversible in

this or that detail, perchance, but in its essential features never!

Scholastic orthodoxy, to which one must always go when one wishes

to find perfectly clear statement, has beautifully elaborated this absolutist

conviction in a doctrine which it calls that of "objective evidence." If, for

example, I am unable to doubt that I now exist before you, that two is less

than three, or that if all men are mortal then I am mortal too, it is because

these things illumine my intellect irresistibly. The final ground of this

objective evidence possessed by certain propositions is the

adequatio

intellectus nostri cum re.

The certitude it brings involves an

aptitudinem ad

extorquendum certum assensum

on the part of the truth envisaged, and on

the side of the subject

a quietem in cognitione

, when once the object is

mentally received, that leaves no possibility of doubt behind; and in the

whole transaction nothing operates but the

entitas ipsa

of the object and

the

entitas ipsa

of the mind. We slouchy modem thinkers dislike to talk in

Latin—indeed, we dislike to talk in set terms at all; but at bottom our own

state of mind is very much like this whenever we uncritically abandon

ourselves: You believe in objective evidence, and I do. Of some things we

feel that we are certain: we know, and we know that we do know. There is

something that gives a click inside of us, a bell that strikes twelve, when

the hands of our mental clock have swept the dial and meet over the

meridian hour. The greatest empiricists among us are only empiricists on

reflection: when left to their instincts, they dogmatize like infallible popes.

When the Cliffords tell us how sinful it is to be Christians on such

“insufficient evidence,” insufficiency is really the last thing they have in

mind. For them the evidence is absolutely sufficient, only it makes the

other way. They believe so completely in an anti-Christian order of the

universe that there is no living option: Christianity is a dead hypothesis

from the start.

But now, since we are all such absolutists by instinct, what in our quality

of students of philosophy ought we to do about the fact? Shall we espouse

and indorse it? Or shall we treat it as a weakness of our nature from which

we must free ourselves, if we can?

I sincerely believe that the latter course is the only one on we can

follow as reflective men. Objective evidence and certitude are doubtless

very fine ideals to play with, but where on this moonlit and dream-visited

planet are they found? I am, therefore, myself a complete empiricist so far

as my theory of human knowledge goes. I live, to be sure, by the practical

faith that we must go on experiencing and thinking over our experience, for

only thus can our opinions grow more true; but to hold any one of them—I

absolutely do not care which—as if it never could be reinterpretable or

corrigible, I believe to be a tremendously mistaken attitude, and I think

that the whole history of philosophy will bear me out. There is but one

indefectibly certain truth, and that is the truth that pyrrhonistic scepticism

itself leaves standing—the truth that the present phenomenon of

consciousness exists. That, however, is the bare starting point of

knowledge, the mere admission of a stuff to be philosophized about. The

various philosophies are but so many attempts at expressing what this

stuff really is. And if we repair to our libraries what disagreement do we

discover! Where is a certainly true answer found? Apart from abstract

propositions of comparison (such as two and two are the same as four),

propositions which tell us nothing by themselves about concrete reality, we

find no proposition ever regarded by any one as evidently certain that has

not either been called a falsehood, or at least had its truth sincerely

questioned by some one else. The transcending of the axioms of geometry,

not in play but in earnest, by certain of our contemporaries (as Zollner and

Charles H. Hinton), and the rejection of the whole Aristotelian logic by the

Hegelians, are striking instances in point.

No concrete test of what is really true has ever been agreed upon.

Some make the criterion external to the moment of perception, putting it

either in revelation, the

consensus gentium

, the instincts of the heart, or

the systematized experience of the race. Others make the perceptive

moment its own test—Descartes, for instance, with his clear and distinct

ideas guaranteed by the veracity of God; Reid with his “common sense”;

and Kant with his forms of synthetic judgment

a priori

. The inconceivability

of the opposite; the capacity to be verified by sense; the possession of

complete organic unity or self-relation, realized when a thing is its own

other—are standards which, in turn, have been used. The much lauded

objective evidence is never triumphantly there; it is a mere aspiration or

Grenzbegriff

, marking the infinitely remote ideal of our thinking life. To

claim that certain truths now possess it, is simply to say that when you

think them true and they are true, then their evidence is objective,

otherwise it is not. But practically one's conviction that the evidence one

goes by is of the real objective brand, is only one more subjective opinion

added to the lot. For what a contradictory array of opinions have objective

evidence and absolute certitude been claimed! The world is rational

through and through—its existence is an ultimate brute fact; there is a

personal God—a personal God is inconceivable; there is an extramental

physical world immediately known—the mind can only know its own ideas;

a moral imperative exists—obligation is only the resultant of desires; a

permanent spiritual principle is in every one—there are only shifting states

of mind; there is an endless chain of causes—there is an absolute first

cause; an eternal necessity—a freedom; a purpose—no purpose; a primal

One—a primal Many; a universal continuity—an essential discontinuity in

things; an infinity—no infinity. There is this –there is that; there is indeed

nothing which some one has not thought absolutely true, while his

neighbor deemed it absolutely false; and not an absolutist among them

seems ever to have considered that the trouble may all the time be

essential and that the intellect, even with truth directly in its grasp, may

have no infallible signal for knowing whether it be truth or no. When,

indeed, one remembers that the most striking practical application to life of

the doctrine of objective certitude has been the conscientious labors of the

Holy Office of the Inquisition, one feels less tempted than ever to lend the

doctrine a respectful ear.

But please observe, now, that when as empiricists we give up the

doctrine of objective certitude, we do not thereby give up the quest or hope

of truth itself. We still pin our faith on its existence, and still believe that

we gain an ever better position toward it by systematically continuing to

roll up experiences and think. Our great differences from the scholastic lies

in the way we face. The strength of his system lies in the principles, the

origin, the

terminus a quo

of his thought; for us the strength is in the

outcome, the upshot, the

terminus ad quem

. Not where it comes from but

what it leads to is to decide. It matters not to an empiricist from what

quarter an hypothesis may come to him:

he may have acquired it by

fair means or by foul; passion may have whispered or accident suggested it;

but if the total drift of thinking continues to confirm it, that is what he

means by its being true.

vii

One more point, small but important, and our preliminaries are done.

There are two ways of looking at our duty in the matter of opinion—ways

entirely different, and yet ways about whose difference the theory of

knowledge seems hitherto to have shown very little concern. We must know

the truth; and we must avoid error—these are our first and great

commandments as would-be knowers; but they are not two ways of stating

an identical commandment, they are two separable laws. Although it may

indeed happen that when we believe the truth A, we escape as an

incidental consequence from believing the falsehood B, it hardly ever

happens that by merely disbelieving B we necessarily believe A. We may in

escaping B fall into believing other falsehoods, C or D, just as bad as B; or

we may escape B by not believing anything at all, not even A.

Believe truth! Shun error!—these, we see, are two materially

different laws; and by choosing between them we may end by coloring

differently our whole intellectual life. We may regard the chase for truth as

paramount and the avoidance of error as secondary; or we may, on the

other hand, treat the avoidance of error as more imperative, and let truth

take its chance. Clifford, in the instructive passage I have quoted, exhorts

us to the latter course. Believe nothing, he tells us, keep your mind in

suspense forever, rather than by closing it on insufficient evidence incur

the awful risk of believing lies. You, on the other hand, may think that the

risk of being in error is a very small matter when compared with the

blessings of real knowledge, and be ready to be duped many times in your

investigation rather than postpone indefinitely the chance of guessing true.

I myself find it impossible to go with Clifford. We must remember that these

feelings of our duty about either truth or error are in any case only

expressions of our passional life. Biologically considered, our minds are as

ready to grind out falsehood as veracity, and he who says, "Better go

without belief forever than believe a lie!" merely shows his own

preponderant private horror of becoming a dupe. He may be critical of

many of his desires and fears, but this fear he slavishly obeys. He cannot

imagine any one questioning its binding force. For my own part, I have also

a horror of being duped; but I can believe that worse things than being

duped may happen to a man in this world: so Clifford's exhortation has to

my ears a thoroughly fantastic sound. It is like a general informing his

soldiers that it is better to keep out of battle forever than to risk a single

wound. Not so are victories either over enemies or over nature gained. Our

errors are surely not such awfully solemn things. In a world where we are

so certain to incur them in spite of all our caution, a certain lightness of

heart seems healthier than this excessive nervousness on their behalf. At

any rate, it seems the fittest thing for the empiricist philosopher.

viii

And now, after all this introduction, let us go straight at our question. I

have said, and now repeat it, that not only as a matter of fact do we find

our passional nature influencing us in our opinions, but that there are

some options between opinions in which this influence must be regarded

both as an inevitable and as a lawful determinant of our choice.

I fear here that some of you my hearers will begin to scent danger,

and lend an inhospitable ear. Two first steps of passion you have indeed

had to admit as necessary—we must think so as to avoid dupery, and we

must think so as to gain truth; but the surest path to those ideal

consummations, you will probably consider, is from now onwards to take

no further passional step.

Well, of course, I agree as far as the facts will allow. Wherever the

option between losing truth and gaining it is not momentous, we can throw

the change of

gaining truth

away, and at any rate save ourselves from any

chance of

believing falsehood

, by not making up our minds at all till

objective evidence has come. In scientific questions, this is almost always

the case; and even in human affairs in general, the need of acting is seldom

so urgent that a false belief to act on is better than no belief at all. Law

courts, indeed, have to decide on the best evidence attainable for the

moment, because a judge's duty is to make law as well as to ascertain it,

and (as a learned judge once said to me) few cases are worth spending

much time over: the great thing is to have them decided on any acceptable

principle, and got out of the way. But in our dealings with objective nature

we obviously are recorders, not makers, of the truth; and decisions for the

mere sake of deciding promptly and getting on to the next business would

be wholly out of place. Throughout the breadth of physical nature facts are

what they are quite independently of us, and seldom is there any such

hurry about them that the risks of being duped by believing a premature

theory need be faced. The questions here are always trivial options, the

hypotheses are hardly living (at any rate not living for us spectators), the

choice between believing truth or falsehood is seldom forced. The attitude

of sceptical balance is therefore the absolutely wise one if we would escape

mistakes. What difference, indeed, does it make to most of us whether we

have or have not a theory of the roentgen rays, whether we believe or not in

mind stuff, or have a conviction about the causality of conscious states? It

makes no difference. Such options are not forced on us. On every account

it is better not to make them, but still keep weighing reasons

pro et contra

with an indifferent hand.

I speak, of course, here of the purely judging mind. For purposes of

discovery such indifference is to be less highly recommended, and science

would be far less advanced than she is if the passionate desire of

individuals to get their own faiths confirmed had been kept out of the

game. See for example the sagacity which Spencer and Weismann now

display. On the other hand, if you want an absolute duffer in an

investigation, you must, after all, take the man who has no interest

whatever in its results: he is the warranted incapable, the positive fool. The

most useful investigator, because the most sensitive observer, is always he

whose eager interest in one side of the question is balanced by an equally

keen nervousness lest he become de-ceived.

Science has organized this

nervousness into a regular technique, her so-called method of verification;

and she has fallen so deeply in love with the method that one may even say

she has ceased to care for truth by itself at all. It is only truth as

technically verified that interests her. The truth of truths might come in

merely affirmative form, and she would decline to touch it. Such truth as

that, she might repeat with Clifford, would be stolen in defiance of her duty

to mankind. Human passions, however, are stronger than technical rules.

“Le coeur a ses raisons,” as Pascal says, “que la raison ne connait pas”; and

however indifferent to all but the bare rules of the game the umpire, the

abstract intellect, may be, the concrete players who furnish him the

materials to judge of are usually, each one of them, in love with some pet

"live hypothesis" of his own. Let us agree, however, that wherever there is

no forced option, the dispassionately judicial intellect with no pet

hypothesis, saving us, as it does, from dupery at any rate ought to be our

ideal.

The question next arises: Are there not somewhere forced options in

our speculative questions, and can we (as men who may be interested at

least as much in positively gaining truth as in merely escaping dupery)

always wait with impunity till the coercive evidence shall have arrived? It

seems

a priori

improbable that the truth should be so nicely adjusted to our

needs and powers as that. In the great boarding house of nature, the cakes

and the butter and the syrup seldom come out so even and leave the plates

so clean. Indeed, we should view them with scientific suspicion if they did.

Moral questions immediately present themselves as questions whose

solution cannot wait for sensible proof. A moral question is a question not

of what sensibly exists, but of what is good, or would be good if it did exist.

Science can tell us what exists; but to compare the worths, both of what

exists and of what does not exist, we must consult not science, but what

Pascal calls our heart. Science herself consults her heart when she lays it

down that the infinite ascertainment of fact and correction of false belief

are the supreme goods for man. Challenge the statement, and science can

only repeat it oracularly, or else prove it by showing that such

ascertainment and correction bring man all sorts of other goods which

man's heart in turn declares. The question of having moral beliefs at all or

not having them is decided by our will. Are our moral preferences true or

false, or are they only odd biological phenomena, making things good or

bad for us, but in themselves indifferent? How can your pure intellect

decide? If your heart does not want a world of moral reality, your head will

assuredly never make you believe in one. Mephistophelian scepticism,

indeed, will satisfy the head's play instincts much better than any rigorous

idealism can. Some men (even at the student age) are so naturally cool-

hearted that the moralistic hypothesis never has for them any pungent life,

and in their supercilious presence the hot young moralist always feels

Compare Wilfrid Ward’s Essay, “The Wish to Believe” in his

Witnesses to the Unseen

(Macmillan & Co., 1893).

strangely ill at ease. The appearance of knowingness is on their side, of

naivete and gullibility on his. Yet, in the inarticulate heart of him, he clings

to it that he is not a dupe, and that there is a realm in which (as Emerson

says) all their wit and intellectual superiority is no better than the cunning

of a fox. Moral scepticism can no more be refuted or proved by logic than

intellectual scepticism can. When we stick to it that there is truth (be it of

either kind), we do so with our whole nature, and resolve to stand or fall by

the results. The sceptic with his whole nature adopts the doubting attitude;

but which of us is the wiser, Omniscience only knows.

Turn now from these wide questions of good to a certain class of

questions of fact, questions concerning personal relations, states of mind

between one man and another. Do you like me or not?—for example.

Whether you do or not depends, in countless instances, on whether I meet

you halfway, am willing to assume that you must like me, and show you

trust and expectation. The previous faith on my part in your liking's

existence is in such cases what makes your liking come. But if I stand

aloof, and refuse to budge an inch until I have objective evidence, until you

shall have done something apt, as the absolutists say,

ad extorquendum

assensum meum

, ten to one your liking never comes. How many women's

hearts are vanquished by the mere sanguine insistence of some man that

they

must

love him! he will not consent to the hypothesis that they cannot.

The desire for a certain kind of truth here brings about that special truth’s

existence; and so it is in innumerable cases of other sorts. Who gains

promotions, boons, appoint-ments, but the man in whose life they are seen

to play the part of life hypotheses, who discounts them, sacrifices other

things for their sake before they have come, and takes risks for them in

advance? His faith acts on the powers above him as a claim, and creates its

own verification.

A social organism of any sort whatever, large or small, is what it is

because each member proceeds to his own duty with a trust that the other

members will simultaneously do theirs. Wherever a desired result is

achieved by the cooperation of many independent persons, its existence as

a fact is a pure consequence of the percursive faith in one another of those

immediately concerned. A government, an army, a commercial system, a

ship, a college, an athletic team, all exist on this condition, without which

not only is nothing achieved, but nothing is even attempted. A whole train

of passengers (individually brave enough) will be looted by a few

highwaymen, simply because the latter can count on one another, while

each passenger fears that if he makes a movement of resistance, he will be

shot before any one else backs him up. If we believed that the whole car-

full would rise at once with us, we should each severally rise, and train

robbing would never even be attempted. There are, then, cases where a fact

cannot come at all unless a preliminary faith exists in its coming. And

where faith in a fact can help create the fact, that would be an insane logic

which should say that faith running ahead of scientific evidence is the

"lowest kind of immorality" into which a thinking being can fall. Yet such is

the logic by which our scientific absolutists pretend to regulate our lives!

In truths dependent on our personal action, then, faith based on desire is

certainly a lawful and possibly an indispensable thing.

But now, it will be said, these are all childish human cases, and

have nothing to do with great cosmical matters, like the question of

religious faith. Let us then pass on to that. Religions differ so much in their

accidents that in discussing the religious question we must make it very

generic and broad. What then do we now mean by the religious hypothesis?

Science says things are; morality says some things are better than other

things; and religion says essentially two things.

First, she says that the best things are the more eternal things, the

overlapping things, the things in the universe that throw the last stone, so

to speak, and say the final word. "Perfection is eternal"—this phrase of

Charles Secretan seems a good way of putting this first affirmation of

religion, an affirmation which obviously cannot yet be verified scientifically

at all.

The second affirmation of religion is that we are better off even now if

we believe her first affirmation to be true.

Now, let us consider what the logical elements of this situation are in

case the religious hypothesis in both its branches be really true. (Of course,

we must admit that possibility at the outset. If we are to discuss the

question at all, it must involve a living option. If for any of you religion be a

hypothesis that cannot, by any living possibility be true, then you need go

no farther. I speak to the “saving remnant” alone.) So proceeding, we see,

first, that religion offers itself as a momentous option. We are supposed to

gain even now, by our belief, and to lose by our nonbelief, a certain vital

good. Secondly, religion is a forced option, so far as that good goes. We

cannot escape the issue by remaining sceptical and waiting for more light,

because, although we do avoid error in that way if religion be untrue, we

lose the good, if it be true, just as certainly as if we positively chose to

disbelieve. It is as if a man should hesitate indefinitely to ask a certain

woman to marry him because he was not perfectly sure that she would

prove an angel after he brought her home. Would he not cut himself off

from that particular angel possibility as decisively as if he went and

married someone else? Scepticism, then, is not avoidance of option; it is

option of a certain particular kind of risk. Better risk loss of truth than

chance of error—that is your faith vetoer's exact position. He is actively

playing his stake as much as the believer is; he is backing the field against

the religious hypothesis, just as the believer is backing the religious

hypothesis against the field. To preach scepticism to us as a duty until

“sufficient evidence” for religion be found, is tantamount therefore to telling

us, when in presence of the religious hypothesis, that to yield to our fear of

its being error is wiser and better than to yield to our hope that it may be

true. It is not intellect against all passions, then; it is only intellect with one

passion laying down its law. And by what, forsooth, is the supreme wisdom

of this passion warranted? Dupery for dupery, what proof is there that

dupery through hope is so much worse than dupery through fear? I, for

one, can see no proof; and I simply refuse obedience to the scientist's

command to imitate his kind of option, in a case where my own stake is

important enough to give the right to choose my own form of risk. If religion

be true and the evidence for it be still insufficient, I do not wish, by putting

your extinguisher upon my nature (which feels to me as if it had after all

some business in this matter), to forfeit my sole chance in life of getting

upon the winning side—that chance depending, of course, on my

willingness to run the risk of acting as if my passional need of taking the

world religiously might be prophetic and right.

All this is on the supposition that it really may be prophetic and

right, and that, even to us who are discussing the matter, religion is a live

hypothesis which may be true. Now, to most of us religion comes in a still

further way that makes a veto on our active faith even more illogical. The

more perfect and more eternal aspect of the universe is represented in our

religions as having personal form. The universe is no longer a mere It to us,

but a Thou, if we are religious; and any relation that may be possible from

person to person might be possible here. For instance, although in one

sense we are passive portions of the universe, in another we show a

curious autonomy, as if we were small active centers on our own account.

We feel, too, as if the appeal of religion to us were made to our own active

good will, as if evidence might be forever withheld from us unless we met

the hypothesis halfway. To take a trivial illustration: just as a man who in a

company of gentlemen made no advances, asked a warrant for every

concession, and believed no one's word without proof, would cut himself off

by such churlishness from all social rewards that a more trusting spirit

would earn—so here, one who should shut himself up in snarling logicality

and try to make the gods extort his recognition willy-nilly or not get it at all,

might cut himself off forever only opportunity of making the gods’

acquaintance. This feeling, forced on us we know not whence, that by

obstinately believing that there are gods (although not to do so would be so

easy both for our logic, and our life) we are doing the universe the deepest

service we can, seems part of the living essence of the religious hypothesis.

If the hypothesis

were

true in all its parts, including this one, then pure

intellectualism, with its veto on our making willing advances, would be an

absurdity; and some participation of our sympathetic nature would be

logically required. I, –therefore, for one, cannot see my way to accepting the

agnostic rules for truth seeking, or wilfully agree to keep my willing nature

out of the game. I cannot do so for the plain reason, that

a rule of thinking

which would absolutely prevent me from acknowledging certain kinds of truth

if those kinds of truth were really there would be an irrational rule.

That for

me is the long and short of the formal logic of the situation, no matter what

the kinds of truth might materially be.

I confess I do not see how this logic can be escaped. But sad

experience makes me fear that some of you may still shrink from radically

saying with me,

in abstracto

, that we have the right to believe at our own

risk any hypothesis that is live enough to tempt our will. I suspect,

however, that if this is so, it is because you have got away from the

abstract logical point of view altogether, and are thinking (perhaps without

realizing it) of some particular religious hypothesis which for you is dead.

The freedom to “believe what we will,” you apply to the case of some patent

superstition; and the faith you think of is the faith defined by the schoolboy

when he said, “Faith is when you believe something that you know ain’t

true.” I can only repeat, that this is misapprehension.

In concreto

, the

freedom to believe can only cover living options which the intellect of the

individual cannot by itself resolve; and living options never seem

absurdities to him who has them to consider. When I look at the religious

question as it really puts itself to concrete men, and when I think of all the

possibilities which both practically and theoretically it involves, then this

command that we shall put a stopper on our heart, instincts, and courage,

and

wait

—acting of course meanwhile more or less as if religion were

not

true

—till doomsday, or till such time as our intellect and senses working

Since belief is measured by action, he who forbids us to believe religion to be true,

necessarily also forbids us to act as we should if we did believe it to be true. The whole

defense of religious faith hinges upon action. If the action required or inspired by the

religious hypothesis is in no way different from that dictated by the naturalistic hypothesis,

then religious faith is a pure superfluity, better pruned away, and controversy about its

legitimacy is a piece of idle trifling, unworthy of serious minds. I myself believe, of course,

that the religious hypothesis gives to the world an expression which specifically determines

together may have raked in evidence enough—this command, I say, seems

to me the queerest idol ever manufactured in the philosophic cave. Were we

scholastic absolutists, there might be more excuse. If we had an infallible

intellect with its objective certitudes, we might feet ourselves disloyal to

such a perfect organ of knowledge in not trusting to it exclusively, in not

waiting for its releasing word. But if we are empiricists, if we believe that no

bell in us tolls to let us know for certain when truth is in our grasp, then it

seems a piece of idle fantasticality to preach so solemnly our duty of

waiting for the bell. Indeed we may wait if we will—I hope you do not think

that I am denying that—but if we do so, we do so at our peril as much as if

we believed. In either case we

act

, taking our life in our hands. No one of us

ought to issue vetoes to the other, nor should we bandy words of abuse. We

ought, on the contrary, delicately and profoundly to respect one another's

mental freedom: then only shall we bring about the intellectual republic;

then only shall we have that spirit of inner tolerance without which all our

outer tolerance is soulless, and which is empiricism’s glory; then only shall

we live and let live, in speculative as well as in practical things.

I began by a reference to Fitz-James Stephen; let me end by a

quotation from him.

What do you think of yourself? What do you think of the world? ...

These are questions with which all must deal as it seems good to them.

They are riddles of the Sphinx, and in some way or other we must deal

with them. ... In all important transactions of life we have to take a leap

in the dark. ... If we decide to leave the riddles unanswered, that is a

choice; if we waver in our answer, that, too, is a choice: but whatever

choice we make, we make it at our peril. If a man chooses to turn his

back altogether on God and the future, no one can prevent him; no one

can show beyond reasonable doubt that he is mistaken. If a man

thinks otherwise and acts as he thinks, I do not see that any one can

prove that he is mistaken. Each must act as he thinks best; and if he is

wrong, so much the worse for him. We stand on a mountain pass in the

midst of whirling snow and blinding mist, through which we get

glimpses now and then of paths which may be deceptive. If we stand

still we shall be frozen to death. If we take the wrong road we shall be

dashed to pieces. We do not certainly know whether there is any right

one. What must we do? “Be strong and of a good courage.” Act for the

best, hope for the best, and take what comes. ... If death ends all, we

cannot meet death better.

* * *

our reactions, and makes them in a large part unlike what they might be on a purely

naturalistic scheme of belief.

Liberty, Equality, Fraternity

, 2nd ed. (London, 1874), p. 353.

The Will to Believe Essay

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